Business Tablets

The majority of recovered cuneiform texts were written for administrative, legal, and economic purposes. By looking at the dates that they contain, combined with other data such as the city they were from, can show us useful chronological information.

For example the dates have been used for this purpose in the following publications:

Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.-A.D. 75 [1, p. 10]
A Survey of Dated Babylonian Economic Texts, 721-626 B.C. [2] [3]
Part II: A Survey of Babylonian Texts, 626-605 B.C. [4]

A more complete survey has been published by J Everling [5], originally available here in text format. From the survey I have generated bar charts counting the tablets dated to each year of each King's reign.

Shamash-shum-ukin

Latest dated texts:

28/V/20 - Borsippa, BM 134973 [6] (K.142 [2, p. 36])
30/V/20 - Babylon, BM 40577 [7] (K.143 [2, p. 36])

The tablets therefore show that Shamash-shum-ukin ruled for 20 years.

Kandalanu

Earliest dated texts:

6/X/1 - Babylon, VAT 2963 (L.1 [2, p. 39])
10/XII/1 - Sippar?, BM 49326 [8] (L.2 [2, p. 39])

Latest dated texts:

25/II/21 - Borsippa, BM 26377 [9] (L.158a [3, p. 103])
8/III/21 - Sippar?, BM 50270 [10] (L.159 [2, p. 49])
?/VIII/21 - Babylon, BM 36514 [11] "After Kandalanu" [12, p. 91]
2/VIII/22 - Babylon, BM 40039 [13] "After Kandalanu" [12, p. 91]

The tablets therefore show that Kandalanu died somewhere between month III and VIII of his 21st year, and that during the 22nd year there was no other king in Babylon [14, p. 244].

Nabopolassar

Earliest dated texts:

13?/II/Acc - ?, NCBT 557 [15]
22/VI/Acc - Sippar? BM 49656 [16]

According to Wiseman: [12, p. 93]

The Chronicle (B.M. 25127, 11. I4-I5) expressly states that Nabopolassar sat on the throne of Babylon on the 26th of Marcheswan [VIII] ... Unless a scribal error is assumed it would seem, therefore, that Nabopolassar was acknowledged king at least at Sippar which had become independent of Assyria before the final battle at Babylon.

Latest dated texts:

1/V/21 - KUR.A.DAN.ŠU, A5302 [1, p. 12]
20/V/21 - ?, PTS 2761 (T.21.14 [4])

The tablets therefore show that Nabopolassar ruled for 21 years.

Nebuchadnezzar II

Earliest dated texts:

12/VI/Acc - Uruk?, (YOS 17, 153 [17])
18/VI/Acc - Sippar, BM 49524 [18] [12, p. 84]

Latest dated texts:

21/VI/43 - Uruk, NCBT 286 [15, p. 44]
26/VI/43 - Uruk, AO 06847 (TCL 12, 58 [19])

The tablets therefore show that Nebuchadnezzar II ruled for 43 years.

Amel-Marduk

Earliest dated texts:

?/V/Acc - Sippar, BM 58872 [20] (Sack No. 79 [21, p. 106])
20/V/Acc - Sippar, BM 75322 [22]

Note that these texts would overlap with the dates for Nebuchadnezzar II by one month. R.H. Sack suggests that Nebuchadnezzar shared a brief co-regency with his son before his death [21, p. 3], which Wiseman agrees 'is certainly possible' [23, p. 451].

However, Weisberg disagrees in his review of Sack's book [24, p. 68]:

a possible co-regency of Nebuchadnezzar and Amēl-Marduk does not seem conclusive. ... The dates we have for the end of one rule and the beginning of another must be used with an understanding of the human factors that led to their recording. An Uruk scribe still dating texts to the reign of a deceased king (Nebuchadnezzar) might not have known what was happening at the court. A Sippar scribe dating texts to Amēl-Marduk might have picked up the news more quickly.

Latest dated texts:

17/V/2 - Babylon? (BE 8/1, 34. [25, p. 76])
19/X/2 - Sippar, BM 61325 [26] (Cat.BM 7 [27, p. 36])

Note that the last date (month X) is an anomaly since of 23 texts from Amel-Marduks second year it is the only one dated later than month V.

The tablets therefore show that Amel-Marduk ruled for 2 years.

Neriglissar

Earliest dated texts:

4/II/Acc - Sippar, BM 75489 [28]
21/V/Acc - Babylon, YBC 3765 [29, p. 67]

Note that the first date (month II) is an anomaly since of 40 texts from Neriglissar's accession year it is the only one dated prior to month V; it is possibly a mistake [30, p. 228].

Latest dated texts:

2/I/4 - Shahrinu, BM 41401 [31]
6/I/4 - Uruk, YBC 3433 [15, p. 44]

The tablets therefore show that Neriglissar ruled for 4 years.

Labashi-Marduk

Earliest dated texts:

23/I/Acc - Uruk, NBC 4534 [15, p. 44]
12/II/Acc - Sippar, BM 67271 [32]

Latest dated texts:

9/III/Acc - Sippar (EKBK 15 [33, p. 18])
11/III/Acc - Uruk, YBC 3817 [15, p. 44]

The tablets therefore show that Labashi-Marduk only ruled for part of his accession year.

Nabonidus

Earliest dated texts:

15/II/Acc - Našušakuna, (Clay BE 8/1, 39 [25, p. 32])
18/III/Acc - Sippar, BM 75214 [34]

Latest dated texts:

17/VII/17 - Uruk (GCBC 528, GCCI 1, 390 [35, p. 67])
10/VIII/17 - Uruk, BM 74972 [36]

The tablets therefore show that Nabonidus ruled for 17 years.

Cyrus II

Earliest dated texts:

19/VII/Acc - Sippar, BM 56154 [37]
?/VII/Acc - Sippar, (Strassmaier, Cyr 1890, 1 [38])

Latest dated texts:

19/VIII/9 - Hursagkalamma, (OECT 10, 123 [39, p. 12])
26/XI/9 - Uruk, YBC 3985 (YOS 7, 84 [40, p. 45])

The tablets therefore show that Cyrus ruled for 9 years.

Cambyses II

Earliest dated texts:

12/VI/Acc - Babylon, (Strassmaier, Camb 1890, 1 [41])
16/VI/Acc - Babylon, (Strassmaier, Camb 1890, 2 [41])

Note there is an overlap between the tablets dated to Cambyses in month VI, with the tablets dated in later months to Cyrus suggesting a co-regency [42, p. 93] although this is disputed [43].

List of Abbreviations

A = tablets in the collections of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago

AO = tablets in the collections of the Musée du Louvre

BM = British Museum

NCBT = tablets in the Babylonian Collection, Yale University Library

PTS = tablets in the collection of the Princeton Theological Seminary

VAT = tablets in the collections of the Staatliche Museen, Berlin

YBC = tablets in the Babylonian Collection, Yale University Library

References

[1] W. H. Dubberstein and R. A. Parker, Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.-A.D. 75. Brown University Press, 1956, [Online]. Available: https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/babylon/downloads/babylonian_chronology_pd_1971.pdf.

[2] J. A. Brinkman and D. A. Kennedy, “Documentary Evidence for the Economic Base of Early Neo-Babylonian Society: A Survey of Dated Babylonian Economic Texts, 721-626 B.C.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 1–90, 1983, [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515942.

[3] J. A. Brinkman and D. A. Kennedy, “Supplement to the Survey of Dated Neo-Babylonian Economic Texts, 721-626 B.C. (JCS 35 [1983] 1-90),” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 99–106, 1986, [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1359954.

[4] D. A. Kennedy, “Documentary Evidence for the Economic Base of Early Neo-Babylonian Society: Part II: A Survey of Babylonian Texts, 626-605 B.C.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 172–244, 1986, [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1359799.

[5] J. Everling, “Materials for the Study of First Millennium B.C. Babylonian Texts. Volume 1. Chronological List of Babylonian Texts from the First Millennium B.C. Babylonia.” The Online Book Series of The Department of Ancient History, The University of Pécs., 2013, [Online]. Available: http://okor.btk.pte.hu/sites/okor.btk.pte.hu/files/files/SEAL/sea-l_3_jeverling_materials_vol1.pdf.

[6] “BM 134973,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1968-0422-8.

[7] “BM 40577,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1881-0428-119.

[8] “BM 49326,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0323-317.

[9] “BM 26377,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1898-0514-195.

[10] “BM 50270,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0323-1261.

[11] “BM 36514,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1880-0617-241.

[12] D. J. Wiseman, Chronicles of Chaldean Kings (626-556 B.C.): In the British Museum. British Museum, 1956, [Online]. Available: http://digital.library.stonybrook.edu/cdm/ref/collection/iraqiarcheology/id/85.

[13] “BM 40039,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1881-0201-3.

[14] N. Na’aman, “Chronology and History in the Late Assyrian Empire (631—619 B.C.),” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 81, no. 1–2, pp. 243–267, 1991, [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1515/zava.1991.81.1-2.243.

[15] A. Goetze, “Additions to Parker and Dubberstein’s Babylonian Chronology,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 43–46, 1944, [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542400.

[16] “BM 49656,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0323-647.

[17] D. B. Weisberg and R. P. Dougherty, Texts from the Time of Nebuchadnezzar, vol. 17. Yale University Press, 1980.

[18] “BM 49524,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0323-515.

[19] G. Contenau, Contrats neo-babyloniens, vol. 12. P. Geuthner, 1927.

[20] “BM 58872,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0714-3281.

[21] R. H. Sack, Amēl-Marduk, 562-560 B.C. A Study Based on Cuneiform, Old Testament, Greek, Latin and Rabbinical Sources, vol. 4. Butzon & Bercker, 1972.

[22] “BM 75322,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1883-0118-AH-655.

[23] D. J. Wiseman, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 450–452, 1974, [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/612590.

[24] D. B. Weisberg, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 67–69, 1976, [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/544838.

[25] A. T. Clay, The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania: Series A, Cuneiform Texts, vol. 8. Department of archaeology, University of Pennsylvania, 1908, [Online]. Available: https://archive.org/details/cu31924026432462.

[26] “BM 61325,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0918-1300.

[27] E. Leichty and A. K. Grayson, Catalogue of the Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum. Volume VII: Tablets from Sippar 2, vol. 7. British Museum Publications, 1987.

[28] “BM 75489,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1883-0118-AH-824.

[29] R. P. Dougherty, Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, vol. 15. Yale University Press, 1929, [Online]. Available: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004069087.

[30] G. van Driel, “Neriglissar,” Reallexikon der Assyriologie, vol. 9, pp. 228–229, 1998.

[31] “BM 41401,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1881-0625-12.

[32] “BM 67271,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0918-7267.

[33] S. J. N, “Einige kleinere babylonische Keilschrifttexte aus dem Britischen Museum,” Actes du huitième congrès international des Orientalistes, tenu en 1889 à Stockholm et à Christiania. Deuxième partie, Section I B., pp. 279–283, 1893, [Online]. Available: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680937m.texteImage?lang=EN.

[34] “BM 75214,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1883-0118-AH-544.

[35] R. P. Dougherty, Archives from Erech; Time of Nebuchadrezzar and Nabonidus, vol. 1. Goucher College, 1923, [Online]. Available: https://web.archive.org/web/20200726142122/http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/20281.pdf.

[36] “BM 74972,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1883-0118-AH-295.

[37] “BM 56154,” The British Museum. [Online]. Available: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1882-0714-515.

[38] S. J. N, Inschriften Von Cyrus, König Von Babylon (538-529 V. Chr). Eduard Pfeiffer, 1890, [Online]. Available: https://web.archive.org/web/20200726144922/http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/20390.pdf.

[39] G. J. P. McEwan and A. Museum, Late Babylonian Texts in the Ashmolean Museum, vol. 10. Clarendon Press, 1984.

[40] A. Tremayne, Records from Erech: time of Cyrus and Cambyses (538-521 B.C.), vol. 7. Yale University Press, 1925, [Online]. Available: https://babylonian-collection.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/yos7.pdf.

[41] J. N. Strassmaier, B. T. A. Evretts, and B. Museum, Inschriften von Cambyses, König von Babylon (529-521 v. Chr.). E. Pfeiffer, 1890, [Online]. Available: https://web.archive.org/web/20200726144248/http://www.etana.org/sites/default/files/coretexts/20389.pdf.

[42] M. A. Dandamayev, Iranians in Achaemenid Babylonia. Mazda Publishers, 1992, [Online]. Available: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=stUkDwAAQBAJ.

[43] J. Peat, “Cyrus "King of Lands," Cambyses "King of Babylon": The Disputed Co-Regency,” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 199–216, 1989, [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1359915.

The Jerusalem Book